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This report provides an overview of the current public perception and public acceptance of biosolids recycling in North America. It provides conceptual models for understanding the development of current public perceptions, including the influence of many factors, technical issues, typical human responses, communications, information, politics, and social context. The report includes an annotated bibliography and narrative review of recent literature regarding public perceptions and public acceptance of biosolids recycling. Fourteen succinct case studies provide more detailed information on representative biosolids recycling program experiences. There are examples of biosolids management programs that have failed because of public controversy, as well as programs that have worked well, with community support. The report provides some strategies for evaluating public perception of a biosolids program and for selecting appropriate tools for public outreach and participation.

Of the total number of consumer product chemicals the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has identified, approximately 500 are considered high production volume (HPV) chemicals. This study investigated the occurrence and fate of high production volume household chemicals in wastewater systems. The study was initiated with a comprehensive review on HPV organic chemicals in household commodities and their contributions to municipal wastewater treatment systems. The comprehensive review presented the basis to compile a database on HPV chemicals and organic compounds in household commodities that have the potential to affect wastewater processes and effluent qualities. The occurrence of select HPV target compounds during wastewater treatment was studied by collecting composite samples of raw sewage and final treated effluents at seven full-scale treatment plants employing different operational conditions. Of the 26 household chemicals targeted in this study, 20 compounds were consistently detected in raw influents of full-scale wastewater treatment plants. Chemicals that are primarily used in products applied outdoors were generally not present in raw influent samples. The majority of compounds present in personal care and cleaning products generally appeared in all influent samples with concentrations of 2-phenoxyethanol (a preservative with various uses) and menthol (a fragrance with various uses) consistently exhibiting the highest concentrations of all compounds. The efficacy of advanced wastewater treatment processes to achieve removal and destruction of selected target compounds was studied through controlled lab- and pilot-scale studies (i.e., MBR, ozone, AOP). In general, biological treatment resulted in partial or complete removal (>80%) indicating that biological treatment is a good treatment option for HPV household chemicals.

Aerobic Wastewater Treatment Processes: History and Development discusses the widely differing influences on the development of aerobic treatment such as water supply, toxic trade effluents, microscopy and population growth in urban areas.

Nanotechnology in Industrial Wastewater Treatment is a state of the art reference book. The book is particularly useful for wastewater technology development laboratories and organizations. All professional and academic areas connected with environmental engineering, nanotechnology based wastewater treatment and related product design are incorporated and provide an essentialresource. The book describes the application and synthesis of Ca-based and magnetic nano-materials and their potential application for removal/treatment of heavy metals from wastewater. Nanotechnology in Industrial Wastewater Treatment discusses the rapid wastewater treatment methods using Ca-based nanomaterials and magnetic nanomaterials. This is an emerging area of new science and technology in wastewater treatment. The main audiences for the book are water industry professionals, research scholars and students in the area of Environmental Engineering and Nanotechnology.Authors: Dr. Arup Roy Department of Mining Engineering, Geo-Environmental Lab., Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur,India; and Professor Jayanta Bhattacharya, Department of Mining Engineering, Geo-Environmental Lab., Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India.

The book provides insights into a range of aspects associated with alternative water supply systems and an evidence base (through case studies) on potential water savings and trade-offs. The information organized in the book is aimed at facilitating wider uptake of context specific alternatives at a decentralized scale mainly in urban areas.

Mass Flow and Energy Efficiency of Municipal Sewage Treatment Plant describes the mass flow and transfer of major pollutants and energy efficiency of municipal sewage treatment plants, which is studied and undertaken as part of the R & D program of Public Utilities Board (PUB) Singapore.

The Handbook on Particle Separation Processes provides knowledge and expertise from a selected group of international experts with a wealth of experience in the field of particles and particle separation in water and wastewater treatment.

Utility Benchmarking and Regulation in Developing Countries is a handbook for utility monitors or regulators whose primary duty is to oversee performance management.

Resources end up in wastewater through inefficient consumption. As a result, wastewater contains reusable water, carbon (energy) and nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur) that could be recovered or reused. Meanwhile, current treatment objectives are to produce an acceptable quality of water for reuse or discharge at the lowest life cycle cost. Most of the current treatment processes manage carbon and nutrients as wastes to be removed, and do not attempt to capitalize on these resources inherent in wastewater. In the context of sustainability and climate change, the next generation of wastewater treatment processes should focus on resource recovery (water reuse, energy/carbon recovery and nutrient recovery) as much as they currently do on treatment. The future goal is for wastewater treatment of domestic wastewater to have a minimal carbon footprint, and to be 100% self-sustainable with regards to energy, carbon, and nutrients, while achieving a discharge or reuse quality that preserves the quality of the receiving waters. In May 2009, the Water Environment Research Foundation (WERF) convened a work group of international experts in the wastewater sector to develop a Wastewater Treatment Technology Roadmap which will identify possible routes to sustainable wastewater treatment in a carbon-constrained world. The resultant Technology Roadmap report identifies pathways toward sustainable wastewater systems over the next few decades, including various approaches the sector could utilize over the 20-30 year planning horizon.The Technology Roadmap describes the current status of wastewater technologies, projects future treatment quality requirements, identifies research needs, and summarizes ongoing activities to meet the perceived future objectives such as reducing the carbon footprint while achieving lower nutrient levels. Work group participants brainstormed possible technology concepts which can be reasonably expected to produce actionable results that can be implemented by interested wastewater utilities. The participants considered typical and atypical approaches to optimizing carbon and nutrient management at WWTPs. Typical approaches include the evaluation of process modeling opportunities and constraints, and incremental resource and carbon management optimization techniques. Atypical approaches will be even more important to the future of wastewater resource reclamation. As an additional outcome, several work group members suggested conceptual and sustainable "e;plant of the future"e; treatment systems not constrained by existing infrastructure. Participants discussed their "e;Plant of the Future"e; concepts which can be expected to generate opportunities and research needs related to energy sources within treatment plants, changing wastewater characteristics, decentralized treatment, increased nutrient recovery and management, and total water reuse.

This Best Practice Guide on Metals Removal From Drinking Water By Treatment describes drinking water standards and regulations, and explains the impact of a range of water treatment processes on metal levels in drinking water.

This project will deal with a number of aspects of WAS-only-reduction technologies for both industrial and municipal wastewater treatment applications. The objectives of this project include the following:Developing an evaluation methodology that can be used to independently assess the effectiveness of WAS-reduction technologiesDemonstrating the previously listed methodology with at least one WAS-reduction technologyThis study includes not only the primary goals of establishing the degree of WAS reduction and corresponding capital and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs, but also such details as impacts on dewaterability (e.g., changes in polymer requirements, and maximum solids content achievable), changes in volatile solids reduction and corresponding biogas production in anaerobic digestion, possible odor issues in terms of in-plant processing requirements or ultimate product quality for disposal that result from these processes, and the change in characteristics of the recycle streams back to the main process (such as increased nutrient return, increased total suspended solids [TSS] return, phosphorus removal, etc.).In addition to the more technical parameters, the adopted approach also considers evaluations of operability, reliability, and maintainability on each of the leading processes. Some of these effects were determined by laboratory testing and plant data evaluation. Others were investigated through comprehensive modeling using standard industry models such as ASM 2d for liquid-stream biological treatment and the ADM1 model for anaerobic digestion.A key objective of this work is an impartial validation of these technologies and the development of a methodology for assessment of additional technologies that currently do not exist, but could be developed in the future. This requires not only real world operating data, but also a degree of understanding of the fundamental mechanism behind the process. As such, a critical part of this project involves the discussion of the potential underlying mechanisms for each of the validated technologies.

Wastewater treatment is an energy intensive process that removes contaminants and protects the environment. While some wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) recover a small portion of their energy demand through sludge handling processes, most of the useful energy available from wastewater remains unrecovered. Efforts are underway to harness energy from wastewater by developing microbial fuel cells (MiFCs) that generate electricity. Key challenges to the development of microbial fuel cells include inefficiencies inherent in recovering energy from microbial metabolism (particularly carbon metabolism) and ineffective electron transfer processes between the bacteria and the anode. We explored the prospects for constructing microaerobic nitrifying MiFCs which could exhibit key advantages over carbon-based metabolism in particular applications (e.g., potential use in ammonia-rich recycle streams). In addition, we evaluated nanostructure-enhanced anodes which have the potential to facilitate more efficient electron transfer for MiFCs because carbon nanostructures, such as nanofibers, possess outstanding conducting properties and increase the available surface area for cellular attachment.In the initial phase of this project, we investigated the performance of a novel nitrifying MiFC that contains a nanostructure-enhanced anode and that demonstrated power generation during preliminary batch testing. Subsequent batch runs were performed with pure cultures of Nitrosomonas europaea which demonstrated very low power generation. After validating our fuel cell hardware using abiotic experiments, we proceeded to test the MiFC using a mixed culture from a local wastewater treatment plant, which was enriched for nitrifying bacteria. Again, the power generation was very low though noticeably higher on the nanostructured anodes.After establishing and monitoring the growth of another enriched nitrifying culture, we repeated the experiment a third time, again observing very low power generation. In the absence of appreciable and repeatable power production from pure and mixed nitrifying cultures, we focused on the second major objective of the work which was the fabrication and characterization of carbon nanostructured anodes. The second research objective evaluated whether or not addition of carbon nanostructures to stainless steel anodes in anaerobic microbial fuel cells enhanced electricity generation.The results from the studies focused on this element were very promising and demonstrated that CNS-coated anodes produced up to two orders of magnitude more power in anaerobic microbial fuel cells than in MiFCs with uncoated stainless steel anodes. The largest power density achieved in this study was 506 mW m-2, and the average maximum power density of the CNS-enhanced MiFCs using anaerobic sludge was 300 mW m-2. In comparison, the average maximum power density of the MiFCs with uncoated anodes in the same experiments was only 13.7 mW m-2, an almost 22-fold reduction. Electron microscopy showed that microorganisms were affiliated with the CNS-coated anodes to a much greater degree than the noncoated anodes. Sodium azide inhibition studies showed that active microorganisms were required to achieve enhanced power generation.The current was reduced significantly in MiFCs receiving the inhibitor compared to MiFCs that did not receive the inhibitor. The nature of the microbial-nanostructure relationship that caused enhanced current was not determined during this study but deserves further evaluation. These results are promising and suggest that CNS-enhanced anodes, when coupled with more efficient MiFC designs than were used in this research, may enhance the possibility that MiFC technologies can move to commercial application.

Nanotechnology for Water and Wastewater Treatment bridges the space between the synthesis (conventional and more greener methods) and use (applications in the drinking water production, wastewater treatment and environmental remediation fields) of nanotechnology on the one hand and its potential environmental implications.

The biotic ligand model (BLM) is a computational tool that may be used to predict toxic effect levels of metals, including Ag. The BLM considers the effect of site-specific water quality characteristics on Ag speciation and bioavailability. This provides a basis for extrapolating from laboratory waters, used for most Ag toxicity tests, to natural waters, where the bioavailability and toxicity of Ag may differ. The original version of the BLM for the acute toxicity of Ag was reviewed by the USEPA Science Advisory Board (SAB) in 1999 and they recommended the completion of additional Ag chemistry and toxicity studies to provide data to test and refine the model. This project was completed to satisfy these recommendations. A chemistry component was completed to improve the representation of Ag speciation in natural waters and to characterize the important effect of sulfide on Ag bioavailability. These investigations added to the information that was available to characterize Ag chemistry and provided a basis for updating the earlier version of the Ag BLM. The BLM was also calibrated to laboratory toxicity data that were generated for a Ag-sensitive invertebrate, Ceriodaphnia dubia, a cladoceran that had previously been tested to only a limited degree.The studies were carried out in laboratory waters in which the chemistry was systematically varied to provide a basis for calibration of the BLM to the toxicity data for C. dubia. Toxicity tests were also performed with both Pimephales promelas and C. dubia in natural water samples that were well characterized chemically, with the data then used to test the model. While the C. dubia BLM results were relatively successful at simulating the observed effect levels the P. promelas results highlighted the need for further testing and refinement of the Ag BLM as it was applied to this fish species. Physiological tests were performed to explore the apparent increase in sensitivity of P. promelas in some of the test waters that were relatively low in ionic strength.It was determined that acclimation to such low ionic strength waters, in the absence of Ag, did not significantly reduce their sensitivity to Ag. Rather, it appeared that any benefit that may have been realized by acclimation, such as an enhanced ability to upregulate ion uptake rates in low ionic strength waters, was apparently offset by a concomitant increase in the rate at which Ag was accumulated. The Ag BLM was modified to account for the effect of low ionic strength water on the sensitivity to Ag of > 4-day old P. promelas. This led to an improved ability of the BLM to predict P. promelas effect levels in the natural waters. Physiological tests were also performed to investigate the apparent species-specific protection against Ag toxicity that is provided by chloride. Investigations with P. promelas suggested that the differences in degree of protection may be related to differences in how Ag affects the ionoregulation of Na+ and Cl- by different fish species. Although questions remain with regard to chloride, it appears that the BLM is able to predict this response reasonably well, particularly for the relatively sensitive <4 day old P. promelas. In summary, the WERF program yielded an improved chemistry and toxicity database, including data over an extended range of water quality characteristics and for an additional Ag-sensitive invertebrate, thereby providing a basis for refining the acute Ag BLM and improving its overall predictive ability.

Drinking Water Quality Management from Catchment to Consumer is a best practice book that builds on the experience of water suppliers and experts across the world in order to provide a practical guide to help utilities improve the management of drinking water quality.

This book covers the most recent scientific and technological developments (state-of-the-art) in the field of chemical oxidation processes applicable for the efficient treatment of biologically-difficult-to-degrade, toxic and/or recalcitrant effluents originating from different manufacturing processes.

This book is designed to be the introductory work in the new Governance and Management for Sustainable Water Systems Series. It introduces the subject of governance of water systems and illuminates relatively unexplored topics of water resources management.

Accurate prediction of wastewater pipe structural and functional deterioration plays an essential role in the utility asset management process and capital investment planning. The key to implementing an asset management strategy is a comprehensive understanding and prediction of asset condition and performance. The primary objective of this research is therefore to develop protocols and methods for predicting the remaining economic life of wastewater pipe assets. The limits of deterioration prediction capabilities are not in mathematical models or statistical analysis methods, but in lack of accurate and consistent data. This report presented the short-term phase-1 which has been completed with results from intensive literature reviews, various interviews with utilities, and pipe associations. In this phase, the research team investigated the life cycle of wastewater pipeline and identified the causes of pipe failure in different phases including design, manufacture, construction, operation and maintenance, and repair/rehabilitation/replacement.The research team has prepared various modes and mechanisms of pipe failure in wastewater infrastructure system as well as identified environmental and societal consequences of the failure. After reviewing all relevant reports and utility databases, the research team has developed a set of standard pipe parameter list (data structure) and pipe data collection methodology. The data structure has been classified into Gold, Silver, Bronze and Wood standard.

This report has developed from an integrated project of the 6th EU RTD Framework Programme that aims to provide the scientific basis for an improved river basin management through a better understanding of the river-sediment-soil-groundwater system as a whole, by integrating both natural and socio-economics aspects at different temporal and spatial

Many EU cities are experiencing increasing problems with their water pipeline infrastructure. The cost of replacing these old, worn-out systems, if left to deteriorate beyond repair, is astronomical and clearly beyond the resources of many communities. Replacement, however, is not the only choice as many of these systems can be rehabilitated.

The primary objective of this book is to support the current research and development activities in membrane technology focused on water treatment in the Mediterranean area, providing an international stage to local research organisations and universities devoted to the development of membrane technologies.

Decision Support for Water Framework Directive Implementation:Volume 3 is a concrete outcome from the Harmoni-CA concerted action as part of a 4-volume series of Guidance Reports that guide water professionals through the implementation process of the Water Framework Directive, with a focus on the use of ICT-tools (and in particular modelling).

Optimisation of Corrosion Control for Lead in Drinking Water Using Computational Modelling Techniques is the first in the Research Report Series that is being published by the IWA Specialist Group on Metals and Related Substances in Drinking Water.

Operating Large Scale Membrane Bioreactors for Municipal Wastewater Treatment provides hands-on information on many aspects of MBR technology based on more than ten years of practical experience in the operation of MBR plants with hollow-fiber microfiltration units.

This new edition describes the state-of-the-art progress in research on conventional treatment, coagulation and flocculation, rapid granular filtration, slow sand filtration and UV disinfection.

This book analyses the particle-related processes involved in the generation of discolouration problems in the network.

Integrated Assessment for Water Framework Directive Implementation: Data, Economic and Human Dimension - Volume 2 is a concrete outcome from the Harmoni-CA concerted action as part of a 4-volume series of Guidance Reports that guide water professionals through the implementation process of the Water Framework Directive.

This project convened a team of experts in the fields of environmental engineering (AECOM), analytical chemistry and hydrogeology (USGS), and biological assay analysis (UA) to evaluate the occurrence and fate of estrogenic compound, and the estrogenicity of biosolids derived from wastewater treatment. Sludge and biosolids samples were collected through the solids treatment train of four wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) operating a range of solids processing, treatment and disposal options that are typical to facilities across the United States. Targeted solids processing methods included thickening via gravity, gravity belt, and dissolved air flotation; stabilization via lime addition, aerobic digestion and anaerobic digestion; chemical conditioning; dewatering via centrifuge; and other processes including composting and pelletization. Targeted disposal options included beneficial reuse or disposal including land application, dedicated land disposal and landfilling. Samples were collected from the study plants between two and five times over two years, allowing for an assessment of seasonal variation. In some cases, sampling density was not sufficient to assess seasonal variations, but for certain compounds interesting seasonal trends were observed. The solids samples were supplemented by liquid samples at key locations in the study plants during several sample collection events. Over the course of the study 15 sample trips were conducted and a total of 90 samples were collected from the four study plants. For each sample collected, chemical analysis for steroid hormones and in vitro biological assay (bioassay) measurements were conducted to quantify estrogen receptor agonists, antagonists, and estrogenic activity. In addition to the estrogenic compounds, samples were analyzed for a suite of trace organic compounds (TOrCs), including anthropogenic wastewater indicators (AWIs) and pharmaceuticals, resulting in analysis for over 100 chemical compounds in each liquid or solid sample. Collection of these data substantially expanded the scope and value of the study, providing a more comprehensive evaluation of the effects of solids processing and treatment on TOrCs. Loads of TOrCs and estrogenic activity were calculated for each sample point based on flows and solids loadings data from the study plants. In this exercise, TOrC concentrations are multiplied by the solids loading (tons per day) to calculate the daily load of each compound in grams per day (g/day). This report provides comparisons of the chemical and biological assays used in this study, the results of select TOrC mass balances as well as a discussion of the results and areas for future research.

Quantitative Methods to Assess Capacity of Water Treatment to Eliminate Micro-Organisms sets out a general strategy for assessing elimination capacity of water treatment processes for pathogens.