In Defense of Reason After Hegel builds upon and enlists the arguments of Hegel to refute the disempowerment of reason perpetrated by the peddlers of misinformation in public life and by analytic philosophy and postmodernism in the academy. Undermining their assaults on truth, In Defense of Reason After Hegel shows how the fundamental character of nature and of mind allow reason to be autonomous and allow us to enact a reality of freedom in accord with right and freely create works of fine art. The book examines how life and language provide the means for reason to be autonomous and how the autonomy of thought precludes natural evolution or bioengineering from enhancing our capacity for philosophical thinking. It unravels the perplexities of the logic of self-determination and to show how the will can achieve self-determination in the conventions by which agents engender the institutions of freedom. The book then unveils the limitations of the principle of contradiction, which bars the way to an understanding of how anything can be determinate and how thought and action can be free. Thereupon the paradoxes that arise in thinking time are resolved by liberating thought of the formality of the principle of contradiction. The revolutionary character of Hegel's conception of consciousness is next explored to make intelligible how animals and young children can be conscious and self-conscious, as well as how philosophical thought can overcome the epistemological limitations of the opposition of consciousness. On this basis, the book draws upon Hegel's Philosophy of Mind to show how language can originate and be an appropriate vehicle of autonomous reason. The book examines the structure of the institutions of freedom that talking animals can enact. It highlights the philosophical underpinnings of the fundamental shortcomings in the American constitution and American society and draws lessons from the author's recent campaign to shed light on how the philosophy of right can be a guide to social reform. It also examines how the autonomy of fine art can be realized in sculpture, contrary to claims made by Hegel that would tie this individual art to the classical style.
The first book-length study of Sydney-based Horwitz Publications, the largest and most dynamic Australian pulp publisher to emerge after World War II. Although best known for its cheaply produced, sometimes luridly packaged, softcover books, Horwitz Publications played a far larger role in mainstream Australian publishing than has been so far recognised, particularly in the expansion of the paperback from the late 1950s onwards. Horwitz was adept at seeking out and exploiting the porous spaces that existed, sometimes only temporarily, between pulp and mainstream publishing: where mainstream literary forms were reconfigured to suit more sensational tastes, authorial reputation was fluid, and government regulation failed to keep pace with shifting reading tastes and social mores. Its dealings were aggressively transnational in scope, moving beyond London, to directly encompass the United States and other overseas fiction markets. And Horwitz continually mined international literary and publishing fashions and successes to create local analogues of popular pulp and mass-market publishing genres, giving them a makeover to align them with Australian cultural sensibilities, tastes and legislative environments.Horwitz Publications, Pulp Fiction and the Rise of the Australian Paperback examines the authorship, production, marketing and distribution of Horwitz pulp paperbacks. It includes ground-breaking material on the conditions of creative labour: the writers, artists and editors involved in the production of Horwitz pulp. The book also explores how Horwitz pulp paperbacks acted as a local conduit for the global modern: the ideas, sensations, fascinations, technologies, and people that came crashing into the Australia consciousness in the 1950s and 1960s. This is part of the larger story of Australian pulp fiction's role as an unofficial archive of changing tastes, ideas, controversies and debates about gender, race, class, youth, and economic and social mobility that occurred in 1950s and 1960s Australia.
This volume studies the concept of refuge as well as historical forced displacement and statelessness, trying to provide potential lasting solutions to the many problems associated with this situation. It moves from the pressing crisis of refugees to the crisis of humanity that seeks to find refuge.
The book is a firsthand account of Dr. Hannah Jaicks' journey through western Montana's ranching landscapes to showcase the stories of ranchers and affiliated groups who are pioneering strategies for reducing conflicts with wildlife, while also stewarding the landscape. Americans depend on these people who live by working on the land. Ranchers have the power to shape the future of our lands, waterways, and wildlife communities, but enduring perceptions frame ranching as a unilaterally destructive force to the environment. Perception is slippery ground to base an argument on, however, and reality is far more complicated. Often seen as antithetical to one another, American ranchers and wildlife have long been entangled with another. The book is about producers and partner organizations who are forging new paths in conservation and addressing these seemingly intractable entanglements to sustain working ranch operations alongside healthy wildlife populations. It elevates the voices of these people striving daily to achieve wild and working landscapes in the West and serves as a model for how others can begin to do the same. The author takes readers on a journey up western Montana to a different valley in each chapter and showcases the place-based stories of everyday conservation heroes who practice regenerative ranching, provide consciously raised agricultural products, advance strategies for collaborative conservation and protect vital habitat for endemic wildlife that would otherwise be developed and subdivided beyond repair. Ethnographic storytelling is interwoven with psychological theories to inform readers about progressive ways to make the world we share - with people and animals - a better place to live. Illustrations by Katie Christiansen of wildlife and conflict-reduction tools accompany the text, helping to underscore the vivid realities of shared landscapes and how they are achieved. There is no doubt the history of ranching is laden with problematic examples, and public and private rangelands are not universally in good condition today. This book aims to capture the increasing recognition that strong ranching practices coincide with good land and wildlife stewardship measures, but ranchers need help. If we want to see more of this remarkable work happening, environmentalists and concerned citizens need to step up and ensure these practices are not only possible but also become the norm. Everyone must be willing to come to the table and navigate discussions about how to work together more effectively and collaboratively. This book is a roadmap for how people can begin to do so.
Most books about the Irish Famine tend to take Ireland's reliance on potato for granted and treat the arrival of the deadly blight in 1845 as merely the trigger event that launched a humanitarian crisis-one that the British government famously failed to manage. In this work, considerable attention is paid to the origins and nature of Ireland's dangerous potato dependency. Although introduced into Ireland as a cultivated plant, the potato nevertheless had the impact of an invasive species, disrupting and reorganizing Irish agriculture. Drawing upon ecology and systems theory, this study provides a detailed account of the intricacies of Ireland's potato economy built upon an unstable and unsustainable monoculture that became a cybernetic trap. When almost the whole potato crop failed in the fall of 1846, what began as an ecological disaster quickly became a political one. Hampered by long-standing prejudice and Anglo-Irish tensions, the British government's various attempts to deal with the humanitarian crisis were muddled by competing economic and social goals. Among these was the idea that the Famine represented an "e;opportunity"e; to purge Ireland of fragmented land holding and potato dependency by encouraging an English-type market-driven agriculture. Changes did occur, but the government's imperial dreams eventually ran up against Irish realities.This book provides readers with a unique, in-depth understanding of the background to the Irish Famine and a detailed account of the crisis, as well as the immediate and long-term results of the catastrophe. In addition to ecological and agriculture factors, this work shows how cultural, economic and political influences shaped British attitudes and policies. Although Britain's policies reflected anti-Irish prejudices, it was not the "e;Irish people"e; who were the victims of the Famine, but rather the Irish poor. By the mid-1840s, Great Britain was an emerging, middle-class democracy imbued with a faith in free markets and a deep suspicion of the poor, English as well as Irish. The Government's response to the Irish Famine reflects the problems democracies often have setting aside class and racial prejudice in order to deal with humanitarian crises.
The changes triggered by the global financial crisis in 2008, the immigration flows and the covid-19 pandemic in contemporary societies have transformed the way individuals communicate, create content, and 'consume' publicly available information. Consequently, political, societal, and financial pressures have led to alternative forms of media practice and representations and disrupted the core relationships and dynamics between politics, journalism, and society. In this context, several challenges emerge which are related to deeper social and cultural changes. Such challenges influence political communication and its relationship with the media and further impact the boundaries between private and public domains. Some of these challenges also constitute a direct challenge to democratic values and in some cases work against the preservation and strengthening of democracy. Moreover, all these developments are taking place at a time where democracy itself and its 'chronic diseases' are under criticism by new forms of authoritarianism and totalitarianism. This edited book examines the key challenges in political discourse and journalistic practice in times of crises. It focuses on European paradigms and links political rhetoric and media challenges with the societal, political, and financial crises from 2008 until the present.
This book will be the first book that systematically analyzes the different waves of consumer nationalism in China, the types of its nationalistic consumer actions, and the critical impact of the new wave which has increased the possibility of a consumer base that could turn hostile at any moment.
This anthology explores the relationships and interdependencies between literary production and distinctions of taste by examining how the material aspects of literary texts, such as the cover, binding, typography, and paper stock, reflect or even determine their cultural status. In the nineteenth century, for example, the industrialization of printing made possible a wide range of cheap formats, such as dime novels, pulp magazines, and paperbacks, which made literature available to a mass reading public. The increased demand for new content effectively lowered the cultural entrance level, which resulted in a tremendous expansion of popular or trivial fiction. These developments were often perceived as a threat to traditional literary institutions, which increasingly relied on material distinctions as a way of preserving their cultural authority, and some publishers even attempted to mimic the conventions of exclusivity by creating deluxe editions that were designed to preserve the privileged status of so-called "highbrow" texts. In many cases, the distinctions between "highbrow" and "lowbrow" taste actually had little to do with the content of the texts themselves, as books more often functioned as markers of socioeconomic status, like clothing or home décor. At the risk of being provocative, one might even go so far as to say that the concept of literary taste was more closely related to fashion sense than critical judgment. The anthology seeks to address this claim by examining how the tensions between consumerism and prestige reflect fundamental historical changes with regard to the development of technology, literacy, and social power.
Hinge epistemology is a rising trend in epistemology. Drawing on some of Wittgenstein's ideas in On Certainty, it claims that knowledge always takes place within a system of assumptions, or "e;hinges"e;, that are taken for granted and are not subject to verification and control.This volume brings together thirteen papers on hinge epistemology written by Annalisa Coliva, the coiner of the term and one of the leading figures in this trend, and published after her influential monographs Moore and Wittgenstein. Scepticism, Certainty and Common Sense (2010), Extended Rationality. A Hinge Epistemology (2015). By mixing together Wittgenstein scholarship and systematic philosophy, they illuminate the significance of hinge epistemology for current debates on scepticism, relativism, realism and anti-realism, as well as alethic pluralism, and envision its possible extension to the epistemology of logic.Along the way, other varieties of hinge epistemology, such as Moyal-Sharrock's, Pritchard's, Williams' and Wright's are considered, both with respect to Wittgenstein scholarship and in their own right.
Undisciplined is concerned with questions of the transformative effects of crisis in architecture as a discipline. Framing the discussion with narratives that immerse the reader in spaces overshadowed by conflict, Undisciplined posits an unorthodox form of architectural production engaged with the contingent elaboration of new and increasingly necessary spatial narratives.
The essays in Logos and Life, the earliest written in 2001 but mainly dating from 2014 and later, cover topics in philosophy of mind, philosophy of action, ethics and philosophy of language. There are discussions of the voluntary and the involuntary; reasons for action; the idea of an 'inner state'; pleasure; the nature of ethics; justice; necessity and possibility; and a number of other topics. Numerous strands connect these four areas, which Roger Teichmann highlights: in this sense the collection exhibits thematic unity as well as diversity.Several of the essays take as their starting points the ideas and philosophical methods of Wittgenstein and of Elizabeth Anscombe, and so will be of interest to anyone studying those philosophers. Anscombe was a friend and pupil of Wittgenstein, and Teichmann was fortunate enough to be a friend and pupil of Anscombe. He is now a leading authority on her philosophy.A newly written Introduction serves to indicate the main themes and arguments of the book, and provide an overall statement of Teichmann's philosophy.
The Unspoken Morality of Childhood: Family, Friendship, Self-Esteem and the Wisdom of the Everyday reflects the thoughts of a senior ethicist and discusses complex ethical concepts such as identity, agency, self-esteem, forgiveness, relations with our parents, dealing with loss, the moral imagination, and a wide range of other issues that people confront every day.
Jews had lived with us for a thousand years. Then they were killed. Why? Had the Shoah always been brewing in these lands, or could it only happen under the conditions of late capitalism rather than in the atmosphere of primitive pogroms, the violent expulsion of Jews from their Anatevkas? An important point of reference for the author's reflections are the postulates of the representatives of the Frankfurt School - in particular of Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno's Dialectic of Enlightenment - who were the first to draw attention to the potentially criminal character of instrumental reason, disavowing at the same time the tradition of the siecle des Lumieres, the approach which the author is inclined towards. Yet they looked for the causes of the Shoah not where these could be found, either in the "e;authoritarian personality"e; or in the difficulties of living, in the so-called "e;social question."e; However, in order to understand what happened to the Jews in Central and Eastern Europe in the 1940s, one must resort to a language completely different from psychological, social, economic, or police discourse. We must resort to the forgotten language - or better said, the language that is being forgotten - of theology, especially political theology. It is there, the author claims, that one can find the right interpretative tools. It does not belong to the realm of superstition but is our last chance to understand what happened to the world yesterday and what is happening to it today. "e;It was the devil!"e; writes Alain Besancon, a witness of those times, "e;He was the one who communicated his inhuman personality to his subjects."e; We do not know this for sure - maybe yes, maybe no. We do know, however, that it is good that a theological category - the concept of the devil, Antichrist - is returning to the philosophical and, more broadly, social and political discourse. The devil, Antichrist is not just a metaphor or a creature with a limp in the left leg and charred wings; it is rather the atmosphere we live in, manifesting itself in turning traditional values inside out, in replacing respect with tolerance, charity with dubious philanthropy, love with sex, family with any social organization, religion with science, freedom with safety and so on. Examples abound.The author proposes to renew the sense of such theological concepts as eternity, salvation, the idea of chosenness, apocalypse, radical hope, and others, only to better understand the condition of today's world and its increasingly aggressive attitude towards people of strong faith, which may fill us with anxiety and make us think of the recurrence of the Shoah.There are no more Jews in Poland. They had been murdered by the German Nazis, and those who survived were expelled by the Polish communists after the war. We live in a world "e;after Jews."e; Now we must tell ourselves what it means to us. It is important for them and for us. Important for the world.
This book explores the works of Aphra Behn (1640-1689) synchronically through word counts and statistical measures. It analyzes, by genre, poetry, drama, and prose, examining the quantification of Behn's literary style. The conclusion applies thematic questions to the full corpus for an innovative and comprehensive assessment of Behn's writing.
Spanning a decade of Michael Marder's contributions as a public intellectual, Upheavals documents a period of exceptional global turmoil in intellectual, cultural, technological and political spheres.
This book scrutinizes the poetries of Aboriginal poets Oodgeroo Noonuccal (formerly Kath Walker; 1920-1993) and Lionel Fogarty (1958-), and African American poets Amiri Baraka (formerly LeRoi Jones; 1934-2004), and Sonia Sanchez (1934-) and aims to show how these poets collaborated with other civil rights activists in voicing the demands of their people, and how they used their poetry to reflect the realities they experienced and to imagine new possibilities.
The book's importance rests firmly on two strong contributions: Its content and its approach. Its content - delivered in the Judge's own words - provides audiences with a unique view of many seminal moments in American twentieth-century legal history, including the Supreme Court under Earl Warren, the Watergate controversy, the growth of the Big Law firms, First Amendment litigation, and the Cameras in the Courtroom movement. It closely details the significant changes in law firm culture and the legal profession since the 1960s. It uniquely provides a rare behind-the-scenes account of the Senate Confirmation process for a Federal judicial nominee, at the process of judging on the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, what life is like for a Federal judge, and how the court manages its docket. Taken individually, each of one of these insights is worthy of attention - but together in the same book, it is a one-of-a-kind volume.Employing an innovative approach, the book sits at the crest of a brand new wave of US legal research, which focuses on the role of lower federal courts in shaping the "e;life"e; of US law. Biographies of Supreme Court Justices abound and regularly find large audiences for obvious and very good reasons. The personalities and decisions reached by that great institution have a clear impact on the functioning and structure of the United States. However, at the turn of the twenty-first century, legal historians have begun to turn away from the Supreme Court as the exclusive focus of their attention. The latest trends in legal history point to rapidly growing interest in lower court histories, their judges, and the process by which they adjudicate individual cases. While various biographies of lower court judges exist, few meet the breadth and importance of Dyk's experiences, and none is delivered in the judge's own words.
After years of relative indifference, space exploration has caught the public's imagination once again. However, this enthusiasm may well hide a disturbing question: what if humankind is in fact bored with life on Earth? The end of the world has indeed arrived, but in an unexpected way. It can be described thus: man's potential on Earth has been exhausted. We have discovered every piece of land, tried all sorts of political regimes, experienced all the forms of the arts and committed ourselves to all kinds of religious beliefs. Yet if we admit that the thirst for exploration and novelty is at the heart of human nature, we then have to confront the resulting question: can humanity survive the finitude of our world? Will we hold out long in this cloistered and domesticated Earth that has become so devoid of all mystery and adventure? Or will we die of boredom when the Earth will have become the biggest open-air zoo in the universe?The consequences of our planet's finiteness can already be perceived in our day-to-day experience: humans' physical obsolescence, the decline of Eros, the epidemic of depression sweeping across the Western world and self-destructive tendencies that reveal an actual wish for the Deluge to happen, as if we wanted to recreate the clean slate we so yearn for. We must therefore find a way to break free from this looming trap. Part of the solution may lie above us, but the day when our technology can catapult us to a planet orbiting another star is considerably far off. One could consider that it matters little whether we are capable of colonizing space or not, as long as we have our humdrum lives to attend to here on Earth. But our human nature will not let this happen. We are wanderers, explorers, pioneers in all fields of life.The human race will therefore not be driven off our planet to escape meteorites or the depletion of natural resources, but to prevent our own mental and physical imprisonment. Knowing the world has nothing more to offer us is not merely a piece of information; it is a shattering reality to which our bodies and minds will react wildly and the biggest existential challenge humankind will have to face in the near future. By shedding light on this pervading worldwide mental condition, The End of the World and the Last God tries to raise awareness that the obstacles to interstellar expansion do not essentially lie in any technological limitation but in the demons and flaws we host in ourselves.
In the course of its unique exploration, Spirituality for the Independent Thinker combines themes from three related fields: quantum physics, theology, and philosophy. The result is a guide for independent thinkers who seek to do justice to the combination of ideas and feelings that generate spirituality.Exploring themes of metaphysics and fundamental "e;ontology"e;-the philosophic study of being-as-such-the book singles out a constant structure of experience that we take completely for granted because it contains the reality we know: the experience of now. This is a structure that flows and it constitutes a phenomenon that scientists cannot understand or subject to experiments. They lack the standpoint from which to probe it because they are in it.Spirituality for the Independent Thinker helps readers to navigate conceptions that are open to them as they think in an independent manner about religious issues. It confronts the darker side of reality with tough-minded candor, while offering a source of inspiration that withstands any realistic challenge: the ghostliness of the power that upholds us every single moment.
Nikolai Gretsch''s Travel Letters is a fully translated English edition of a three-volume account published by Nikolai Gretsch (1787-1867) in Russian in 1839. In the original Russian, Gretsch describes his travels in post-Napoleonic England, France, and Germany in 1837 at the behest of the Russian Empire. Gretsch had been asked to travel into Western Europe to examine the educational systems and report his findings to the Russian government. However, he was more than just a functionary. He was a journalist, novelist, and philologist. For nearly three decades, he published a journal called Son of the Fatherland, and he was able to convince many influential Russian thinkers of the time to contribute to the periodical. Later, he would publish The Reader''s Library and then The Northern Bee. The former was a short-lived magazine, but the latter was a newspaper that remained in circulation for almost three decades. As these accomplishments suggest, Gretsch was an intellectual--a person who looked beyond the surface-level of his existence to seek deeper meaning. In consequence, as he travelled through England, France, and Germany, his sharp mind absorbed far more than just the details of the educational systems he had been sent to investigate. He noticed the cultural norms in his surroundings, the history of each country, and the personal experiences of the people he met. When he returned to Russia, Gretsch assembled his entertaining and often humorous personal observations into the three-volume edition that was published in St. Petersburg in 1839 -- not long after Napoleon''s final defeat. His astute observations provide a rich contemporary resource for information about the countries he visited. The observations are all the more relevant since they come from the viewpoint of an outsider. Additionally, as a result of his government position, Gretsch was able to move in social circles that would have been closed to many other people. In England, he once found himself in the same room with the future Queen Victoria, for example, and in France, he had lunch with Victor Hugo. Given the new historicist slant of modern literary and cultural studies, Gretsch''s observations offer a treasure-trove of contextual information that will be valuable to history and literature scholars as well as to general readers interested in cultural interactions during the nineteenth century. This narrative has never before been translated into English in its entirety.
Nikolai Gretsch''s Travel Letters is a fully translated English edition of a three-volume account published by Nikolai Gretsch (1787-1867) in Russian in 1839. In the original Russian, Gretsch describes his travels in post-Napoleonic England, France, and Germany in 1837 at the behest of the Russian Empire. Gretsch had been asked to travel into Western Europe to examine the educational systems and report his findings to the Russian government. However, he was more than just a functionary. He was a journalist, novelist, and philologist. For nearly three decades, he published a journal called Son of the Fatherland, and he was able to convince many influential Russian thinkers of the time to contribute to the periodical. Later, he would publish The Reader''s Library and then The Northern Bee. The former was a short-lived magazine, but the latter was a newspaper that remained in circulation for almost three decades. As these accomplishments suggest, Gretsch was an intellectual--a person who looked beyond the surface-level of his existence to seek deeper meaning. In consequence, as he travelled through England, France, and Germany, his sharp mind absorbed far more than just the details of the educational systems he had been sent to investigate. He noticed the cultural norms in his surroundings, the history of each country, and the personal experiences of the people he met. When he returned to Russia, Gretsch assembled his entertaining and often humorous personal observations into the three-volume edition that was published in St. Petersburg in 1839 -- not long after Napoleon''s final defeat. His astute observations provide a rich contemporary resource for information about the countries he visited. The observations are all the more relevant since they come from the viewpoint of an outsider. Additionally, as a result of his government position, Gretsch was able to move in social circles that would have been closed to many other people. In England, he once found himself in the same room with the future Queen Victoria, for example, and in France, he had lunch with Victor Hugo. Given the new historicist slant of modern literary and cultural studies, Gretsch''s observations offer a treasure-trove of contextual information that will be valuable to history and literature scholars as well as to general readers interested in cultural interactions during the nineteenth century. This narrative has never before been translated into English in its entirety.
¿Neo-Gothic Narratives¿ defines and theorises what mobilises the employment of the Gothic to speak to our own times.
This book contains three full-length verbal and quantitative practice tests to prepare students in grades 4 and 5 to take the Intermediate School and College Ability Test (SCAT). SCAT is a multiple-choice, standardized test administered by the Johns Hopkins Center for Talented Youth (CTY) for school-age children in the second to twelfth grades. It is an above-grade level test that assesses math and verbal reasoning abilities among gifted children and assesses students at a higher grade level than the one they are in at the time the test is administered. Students in grades 4 and 5 take the Intermediate SCAT designed at grades 6 to 8 level.The two sections for testing math and verbal reasoning are each 22-minutes long separated by a 10-minutesbreak. There are 55 multiple-choice questions per section, 5 of which are experimental. The 4th to 5th grade SCAT verbal section assesses the student's understanding of word definitions and consists of verbal reasoning analogy questions. In each question, students are presented with a pair of words that are related to each other in some way. They are then to select from the answer options a pair of words that shares the same relation. The 4th to 5th grade SCAT quantitative section assesses how well the student is able to work with numbers andconsists of multiple-choice mathematical comparisons. Each question displays two quantities, of which thea student needs to choose the one with the greater value.
This book contains three full-length verbal and quantitative practice tests to prepare students in grades 6 and above to take the Advanced School and College Ability Test (SCAT). SCAT is a multiple-choice, standardized test administered by the Johns Hopkins Center for Talented Youth (CTY) for school-age children in the second to twelfth grades. It is an above-grade level test that assesses math and verbal reasoning abilities among gifted children and assesses students at a higher grade level than the one they are in at the time the test is administered. Students in grades 6 and above take the Advanced SCAT designed at grades 9 to 12 level.The two sections for testing math and verbal reasoning are each 22-minutes long separated by a 10-minutesbreak. There are 55 multiple-choice questions per section, 5 of which are experimental. The 6th and above grade SCAT verbal section assesses the student's understanding of word definitions and consists of verbal reasoning analogy questions. In each question, students are presented with a pair of words that are related to each other in some way. They are then to select from the answer options a pair of words that shares the same relation. The 6th and above grade SCAT quantitative section assesses how well the student is able to work with numbers andconsists of multiple-choice mathematical comparisons. Each question displays two quantities, of which thea student needs to choose the one with the greater value.
This book contains three full-length verbal and quantitative practice tests to prepare students in grades 2 and 3 to take the Elementary School and College Ability Test (SCAT). SCAT is a multiple-choice, standardized test administered by the Johns Hopkins Center for Talented Youth (CTY) for school-age children in the second to twelfth grades. It is an above-grade level test that assesses math and verbal reasoning abilities among gifted children and assesses students at a higher grade level than the one they are in at the time the test is administered. Students in grades 2-3 take the Elementary SCAT designed at grades 4-5 level.The two sections for testing math and verbal reasoning are each 22-minutes long separated by a 10-minutesbreak. There are 55 multiple-choice questions per section, 5 of which are experimental. The 2nd to 3rd grade SCAT verbal section assesses the student's understanding of word definitions and consists of verbal reasoning analogy questions. In each question, students are presented with a pair of words that are related to each other in some way. They are then to select from the answer options a pair of words that shares the same relation. The 2nd to 3rd grade SCAT quantitative section assesses how well the student is able to work with numbers andconsists of multiple-choice mathematical comparisons. Each question displays two quantities, of which thea student needs to choose the one with the greater value.
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