Böcker utgivna av American Medical Publishers

Auditory information processing refers to the capability of interpreting sounds heard by an individual. Central auditory processing plays an important role in recognizing incoming sounds, analyzing them and assigning meaning to them. It comprises steps related to information processing, which includes mechanical, electrical, chemical and central processing. The auditory system comprises the sensory organs, such as ears, as well as the auditory components of the sensory system. Excitatory neurons have a dominant function in the auditory cortex that transfers sensory information within and across brain areas. Inhibitory interneurons on the other hand, perform a variety of modulatory activities that determine how information is represented and processed. Inhibition has long been a characteristic of neuronal circuits. It helps to generate rhythms and is even capable of activating ion channels, which mediates an inward current that leads to the generation of action potentials. This book contains some path-breaking studies on auditory information processing. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and post graduate students. The readers would gain knowledge that would broaden their perspective about this area of study.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) refers to a type of condition, associated with brain development that affects how a person perceives and interacts with others. This condition can create difficulties in social interaction and communication. It also involves recurring and limited behavioral patterns. The risk factors of ASD include family history, preterm births, the child's gender, the age of the parents, etc. ASD is diagnosed by a thorough examination of a person's behavior and growth, and it is typically diagnosed by the age of two. The most successful therapies of ASD include occupational therapy, physical therapy, applied behavioral analysis, pharmacological therapy and speech therapy. The goal of the treatment is to reduce the negative effects and related deficits of ASD. The treatment also emphasizes on increasing functional independence and quality of life. This book contains some path-breaking studies on autism spectrum disorder. It provides significant information to help develop a good understanding of this medical condition. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the condition.

Arthritis refers to joint inflammation which can impact a single joint or a number of joints. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), metabolic arthritis, osteoarthritis and infectious arthritis are some of the different types of arthritis. It has various signs and symptoms such as stiffness, pain, swelling, redness, etc. The factors that contribute to the development of arthritis are aberrant metabolism, infections, injuries, immune system malfunction and genetic makeup. Some of the imaging techniques that are used to diagnose arthritis include computerized tomography (CT), ultrasound, X-rays and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Its treatment involves non-pharmacologic therapies, weight loss, surgery, drugs, occupational or physical therapy, etc. Physical activity improves mental health and movement, and reduces pain in people with arthritis. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are beneficial in reducing inflammation and relieving pain. Furthermore, putting ice packs on aching muscles can reduce inflammation and pain following intense activity among patients. The book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of arthritis and the recent researches on this medical condition. It includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to the management of inflammation and pain. Researchers and students engaged in the study and management of this medical condition will be assisted by this book.

Asthma is one of the several disorders that affect the lungs and their functions. There are three types of asthma, namely, exercise-induced asthma, asthma-COPD overlap syndrome (ACOS) and occupational asthma. Some of its common symptoms are shortness of breath, chest tightness or pain, trouble in sleeping due to short breath, and wheezing or coughing. Certain factors like allergies, environmental factors, genetics and respiratory infections present a higher risk of asthma. Spirometry is a common diagnostic method used to measure airflow through lungs. Other diagnostic methods for this medical condition include a chest X-ray, skin test or blood test. Treatment of asthma consists of bronchodilators, anti-inflammatory medicines and biologic therapies. Bronchodilators are medications that relax the muscles around airways to relieve the symptoms. Meter-dosed inhaler or nebulizer can also be used for the administration of the medicine. The topics included in this book on the pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment of asthma are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and post graduate students.

Arthritis is a disorder characterized by pain and swelling in one or more joints. It has various signs and symptoms, including stiffness, discomfort, reduced range of motion in joints, etc. Arthritis is commonly classified in six different types, namely, infectious arthritis, osteoarthritis, juvenile arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis and gout. Its risk factors are previous joint injury, family history, obesity, age and gender. Physical examination, arthrocentesis, as well as imaging techniques, such as ultrasound, MRI and X-ray, are all used to diagnose arthritis. The goal of treatment is to reduce joint deterioration, control pain, and maintain or improve quality of life. There are several ways to treat arthritis, which includes a combination of occupational therapy, regular exercise, a nutrient-rich diet, physical therapy, etc. Lotions containing menthol or capsaicin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), analgesics and other medications are also used to treat arthritis. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the clinical assessment and interventions for arthritis. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by it.

Valves are responsible for maintaining one-way flow of blood through the heart. The mitral, tricuspid, aortic, and pulmonic valves are the four valves in the human heart. Aortic valve lies between the left ventricle and the aorta blood vessel. Aortic valve diseases are caused when the aortic valve does not work properly. Surgeries of the aortic valve are used to treat bicuspid valves, various congenital aortic valve disorders, aortic valve stenosis, and aortic valve regurgitation. Fatigue, loss of energy, swelling of ankles, palpitations, shortness of breath and chest pain are signs of aortic valve diseases. This book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of aortic valve replacement surgery and the recent researches on this medical procedure. It is a vital tool for all researching or studying this surgical procedure, as it gives incredible insights into the emerging trends and methods.

Drug delivery is an area of research concerned with the development of novel materials or carrier systems for the effective therapeutic delivery of drugs. One of the emerging technologies for drug delivery is nanotechnology. It enables enhanced treatments with lesser side effects and targeted delivery of drugs. Nanotechnology involves the characterization, production, design and application of nanoscale materials in different key areas, which helps in providing site specific treatment, which in turn decreases the accumulation of drugs in the healthy tissues. Furthermore, it helps in retention of drugs in the body for efficient treatment and helps in transfer of drugs across the endothelial and epithelial barriers. This leads to fewer plasma fluctuations, thereby reducing the side effects. This book provides significant information on the application of nanotechnology for drug delivery. Scientists and students actively engaged in the study of drug delivery systems will find this book full of crucial and unexplored concepts.

Anxiety disorders are a group of mental illnesses associated with constant and overwhelming feelings of anxiety and fear. There are several types of anxiety disorders, namely, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, separation anxiety, selective mutism, etc. Some common signs and symptoms of anxiety disorders are panic, fear, uneasiness, sleep problems, shortness of breath, hyperventilation, heart palpitations, dry mouth, and nausea. There are no lab tests for the diagnosis of anxiety disorders. Examination of a patient can be done by asking questions regarding medical history. The treatments for anxiety disorder consists of medications, such as antidepressants, bupropion, beta-blockers, antipsychotics, etc. It also involves cognitive behavioral psychotherapy that helps in converting negative or panic-causing thoughts and behaviors into positive ones. Some measures to control and prevent anxiety disorders include seeking support, eating right and exercising. The book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of anxiety disorders. It attempts to assist those with a goal of delving into the field of psychiatry.

Aorta is the biggest artery in the human body. The heart pumps the oxygen-rich blood into the aorta through the aortic valve, which opens and closes with the heartbeat. When aortic valve opens, the blood flows to the rest of the body through smaller arteries that branch out from it. Aortic diseases and conditions usually occur when the aorta or aortic valve of a patient's heart gets damaged or is not able to function normally. Many disorders and ailments can damage the aorta, putting patients at serious risk of death. There are various types of aortic diseases such as aortic aneurysm, aortic dissection, aortic infection, aortic intramural hematoma, aortobronchial fistula (ABF), aortoenteric fistula (AEF), etc. Aortic aneurysm is a condition when a section of aorta becomes enlarged whereas in aortic dissection, a tear appears in the aorta. Such selected concepts that redefine the study of aortic diseases have been presented in this book. It is a collective contribution of a renowned group of international experts. This book will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in the field of cardiology.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) happens when microbes develop mechanisms that guard them against the outcomes of antimicrobials. The agents that kill or stop the growth of microorganisms are called antimicrobials. The classification of antimicrobials is based on their function. For instance, antibiotics are used against bacteria and antifungals are used against fungi. The main causes of rising antimicrobial resistance are the usage of antimicrobials in humans and other animals, and the dissemination of resistant strains between the two. The multifold rise in resistance has also been related to the pharmaceutical sector releasing insufficiently treated effluents in the environment, particularly in nations where bulk medicines are made. Antimicrobials boost selective pressure in microbial populations, leading to the death of vulnerable microorganisms. This results in a rise in the percentage of resistant bacteria that survive. Resistant bacteria usually have a growth advantage and proliferate faster than vulnerable bacteria, even at very low levels of antibiotics. Antimicrobial resistance is becoming more widespread, necessitating the development of alternate treatments. The aim of this book is to present researches that have transformed the study of antimicrobial resistance and aided its advancement. It will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this field of study.

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) refers to a phenomenon wherein microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change or mutate over time in such a manner that they do not respond to medicines. When microorganisms develop such resistance, it makes the treatment of infections difficult which increases the risk of disease spread, severe illness and death. AMR can be caused due to several factors such as inappropriate treatment, prescription errors, self-medication, and the emergence of an increasing number of elderly and immunocompromised population. The overdose of antibiotics causes the resistant bacteria to survive and even multiply. Antimicrobial resistance can be acquired through five mechanisms which are the production of drug-inactivating enzymes, modification of an existing target, acquisition of a target by-pass system, reduced cell permeability, and drug removal from the cell. In order to control AMR, certain actions should be taken into consideration that include running information campaigns for the consumers, broadcasting information, providing training for the healthcare professionals, improving diagnostics for treatment decisions, and issuing treatment guidelines, etc. This book aims to shed light on some of the public health challenges of antimicrobial resistance. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Antimicrobials are the medicines used to prevent and treat infections in humans, animals, and plants. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) occurs when microbes such as bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites alter over a period of time in such a way that they no longer respond to medicines, which makes it difficult to treat the infections. This increases the risk of spreading of diseases, severe illness, and death. The rapid increase and spread of drug-resistant pathogens that have attained new resistance mechanisms leading to antimicrobial resistance continues to endanger the potential of antimicrobials to cure common infections. Especially alarming is the emergence and spread of multi- and pan-resistant bacteria, also known as 'superbugs'. These cause infections that are not treatable with prevailing antimicrobial medicines such as antibiotics. Adequate investment and innovation is required in operational research and development of new antimicrobial medicines and vaccines in order to target antimicrobial resistance. This book provides comprehensive insights with respect to antimicrobial resistance. It will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) refers to the decreased effectiveness of a medication, such as an antineoplastic or antimicrobial, to treat a disease or condition. Resistance among microbes is common due to random mutations. Drug resistance occurs when parasites, fungi, viruses and bacteria transform over time and they do not respond to the medications. The clinical implication of AMR is that it makes the treatment of infections difficult while simultaneously increasing the risk of spreading the diseases. This resistance may develop naturally through sustained exposure to antimicrobials. There are some specific antiviral drugs that are utilized for treating various viral infections, such as hepatitis B, influenza, HIV and herpes. These drugs stop the viruses from reproducing by blocking the key stages of replication cycle in infected cells. Some strains of each virus have developed resistance to the administered drugs. AMR can be prevented and controlled by the consumption of antibiotics only when they are required, modifying and inactivating a drug, and active efflux of a drug. This book elucidates the clinical aspects and innovative models around prospective developments in the study of antimicrobial resistance. It aims to serve as a resource guide for students and experts alike and contribute to the growth of research on the control mechanism, regulation and clinical implications of antimicrobial resistance.

Antimicrobial drugs include those medicines which use antimicrobial agents in the prevention and treatment of infections in humans. An antimicrobial agent is a drug used to prevent and treat the pathogenicity of microorganisms. There are different types of antimicrobial drugs, including antibacterial drugs, antifungal drugs, antiviral agents and antiparasitic drugs. There is increased antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in a variety of human pathogenic microorganisms, which includes Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp. The discovery and development of the antimicrobial drugs is aimed at enhancing the pharmacokinetic properties, overcoming pathogen resistance, and extending the spectrum of microorganisms targeted. The five key areas of research in antimicrobial drug discovery are molecular genetics and systems microbiology; synthetic and computational chemistry, and chemoinformatics; high throughput screening (HTS); non-vertebrate model hosts; and light- and nano-based technologies. This book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of antimicrobial drug discovery. It includes contributions of experts and scientists which will provide innovative insights into this field.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) occurs when microbes develop mechanisms to protect themselves from the effects of antimicrobials. It appears in bacteria as a result of protein upregulation, which enables a subpopulation of resistant bacteria to multiply through the process of natural selection. A few of the major causes of AMR are lack of sanitation, accessibility to clean water and hygiene, and a lack of access to quality and reasonably priced vaccines, medications and diagnostics. A few other factors which can result in AMR are lack of legislative enforcement, overuse and misuse of antimicrobials, inadequate disease and infection prevention in health-care facilities, as well as a lack of knowledge and awareness. Treatment of bacterial infections has become more challenging due to rising AMR and multiple resistances. It can be prevented by limiting the duration of antibiotic treatment and usage of antibiotics. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to antimicrobial resistance. It contains a detailed explanation of the various clinical and epidemiological aspects of antimicrobial resistance. This book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of study as well as for experts.

Anticancer drugs refer to drugs that are used for treating cancerous or malignant diseases. They are classified into several categories, including antimetabolites, hormones, alkylating agents and natural products. Preclinical research, clinical research and post-clinical research are the three primary steps in the development of a novel drug. Clinical trial evaluation, in vivo confirmation, and in vitro cytotoxicity on cancer cells are the major assessment methods used while creating an anticancer drug. The evaluation of cytotoxicity towards cancer cell lines is a popular method for discovering anticancer agents. New cancer drugs can be discovered in a variety of ways including testing of animals, plants and fungi, understanding the chemical structure of a drug target, unintentional discovery, developing drugs that are similar to existing drugs, and researching the biology of cancer cells. This book unravels the recent studies on anticancer drug discovery and development. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by it.

Anticancer drugs are utilized in the treatment of cancerous growth or malignancies. These drugs can be administered in isolation, or they can be given along with other treatments, like radiation therapy or surgery. The development of novel anticancer drugs is a lengthy process that includes acquiring new compounds, testing for antitumor activity, formulation and manufacturing, animal toxicology, and lastly assessing the compound's toxicity as well as antitumor activity in humans. There are various medications that are utilized as anticancer drugs, such as L-asparaginase, amsacrine, platinum-based drugs and hydroxyurea. Preclinical models such as cell line model systems may be especially useful in predicting anticancer drug response. It also helps to understand the mechanisms of drug action in situations when clinical samples are unavailable, or the cost of obtaining clinical samples for studying drug response is expensive. The aim of this book is to present researches that have transformed anticancer drug development. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Anesthesiology is a branch of medicine involved in the total perioperative care of patients before, during and after a surgical procedure. It is closely related to intensive care medicine that seeks to provide life support, resuscitation, invasive monitoring, and end-of-life care to critically ill patients. Anesthesiology within the domain of intensive care involves dealing with patients who are suffering from severe trauma or infections, as well as the patients recovering from a major surgery. It also involves assessing the patients in order to determine whether the patient will be able to survive the stress of the surgery and anesthesia. This book unravels the recent studies in the field of anesthesiology and intensive care medicine. It strives to provide a fair idea about the challenges and concerns associated with these fields. With state-of-the-art inputs by acclaimed experts of this field, this book targets medical students and professionals.

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by extreme food restriction and an intense fear of gaining weight. The signs and symptoms of anorexia nervosa can be classified into emotional, physical, and behavioral aspects. Some emotional and behavioral symptoms are social withdrawal, insomnia, irritability, and frequent checks in the mirror for perceived flaws. Thin appearance, abnormal blood counts, fatigue, dehydration and swelling in the body are some common physical symptoms of anorexia nervosa. The diagnosis of this condition includes physical examination by a doctor followed by some tests. Blood tests, urine tests, electrocardiogram, thyroid function tests, imaging tests such as computed tomography (CT) scan, and bone density scan are commonly used to diagnose anorexia nervosa. The treatment for anorexia is aimed at overcoming both psychological and physical symptoms. It includes medications, counseling, and therapies. This book outlines the diagnosis and treatment for anorexia nervosa in detail. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and post graduate students.

Pupil refers to a black hole located in the center of the iris that permits light to enter the eye and strike the retina. Light rays entering the pupil are either absorbed directly by the tissues inside the eye or absorbed after diffuse reflections within the eye that generally miss exiting the narrow pupil. This makes the pupil appear black. Pupil reacts to stimuli such as contraction in response to near fixation and brightness, and dilation as a response to mental effort and arousal. The pupil's image seen from the outside is referred to as entrance pupil. It does not exactly correspond to the location and size of the physical pupil as it is magnified by the cornea. Pupil testing can expose severe neuro-ophthalmic and retinal disease and thereby must be incorporated in the eye examination. This book unfolds the innovative studies on the pupil. It aims to serve as a resource guide for students and experts alike and contribute to the growth of the research on the anatomy, physiology and clinical applications of pupil.

Amebiasis refers to an infection caused by entamoeba histolytica. There can be several symptoms of amebiasis such as abdominal pain, lethargy, diarrhea, colonic ulcerations, loss of weight, etc. Complications related with amebiasis may involve inflammation and ulceration of the colon with tissue death or perforation that can cause peritonitis. Amebiasis is most commonly transmitted through the fecal-oral route. The disease can also transmit via touching with dirty hands or objects and through anal-oral contact. Preventive measures to avoid amebiasis may include frequently washing hands with soap, improving sanitation, avoiding unhealthy foods, drinking boiled water, avoiding the sharing of towels, etc. There are several ways to treat amebiasis infected tissues, such as nitazoxanide, dehydroemetine and tinidazole. Luminal infection is treatable with iodoquinoline or diloxanide furoate. Efficient treatment to tackle this disease at all stages requires a combination of various medications. The aim of this book is to present researches that have transformed the study of amebiasis, as well as its diagnosis, prevention and treatment. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by it.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease that causes a progressive loss of motor neurons which controls voluntary muscles. It is a common motor neuron disease, which has symptoms like stiff muscles, muscle twitches, gradually growing weakness and muscle wasting. ALS leads to paralysis and early death, due to respiratory failure. There is no known cause and currently no treatment for ALS. However, life expectancy can be increased by two to three months by using a medication named riluzole. Other medication are in early stages of ALS, which protects the motor neurons from oxidative stress. Non-invasive ventilation (NIV) may increase both the quality and the duration of life. NIV supports breathing by using a face or nasal mask, connected to a ventilator that produces intermittent positive pressure. Preventing weight loss and malnutrition increases the chance of survival and quality of life in ALS patients. This book provides comprehensive insights on amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Its extensive content provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Natural products are an abundant source of various compounds for the discovery of new drugs. They are significant sources of novel drugs and good lead compounds for further modification in drug development process. The complex carbon skeletons and diverse structures of these products have resulted in an increased proportion of natural products that are being used in drug discovery. Natural products and their structural equivalents have made significant contributions to pharmacotherapy, particularly in the treatment of infectious diseases and cancer. Numerous therapeutic agents are derived from chemicals found in nature. Plant-derived medicines have been used to treat a wide range of pathological conditions. Anticancer drugs like vinblastine and taxol, and antimalarial drugs including artemisinin and quinine were discovered from natural products. This book provides comprehensive insights into drug discovery. It is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the role of natural products in drug discovery. This book will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in this field of research.

The chronic liver disease which is caused by excessive consumption of alcohol is known as alcoholic liver disease. It has various stages, and can progress from alcoholic fatty liver to alcoholic steatohepatitis. It can also lead to more severe medical conditions such as cirrhosis and hepatocellular cancer. The severity to which this disease affects different people can be influenced by epigenetic, genetic and non-genetic factors. A few of its major symptoms are fluid buildup in legs, abnormal bleeding, poor appetite and redness of palms. Alcoholic liver disease can be diagnosed through physical tests, imaging tests and blood tests. The degree of the progression of this disease can be determined by tests such as transient elastography, ultrasonography, MRI and liver biopsy. This book contains some path-breaking studies on alcoholic liver disease. It strives to provide a fair idea about this liver disease and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances towards its treatment. Researchers and students actively engaged in the field of hepatology will find this book full of crucial and unexplored concepts.

Alzheimer's disease is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases, and it is characterized by abnormal protein deposition in the brain. It is the most prevalent type of dementia. It has two primary causes. It may be caused by the extracellular accumulation of abnormal amounts of amyloid beta (Aβ) proteins which lead to accumulation of amyloid plaques. This disease may also occur due to intracellular accumulation of neurofibrillary tangles. In both these cases, the plaques and tangles formed by these proteins disrupt brain nerve cell transmission and affect the neuronal functioning and connectivity which leads to loss of brain function. Alzheimer's disease affects memory and thinking abilities of a person. Significant behavioral and psychological symptoms such as sleep changes are also observed. The current treatments available for this disease focus on improving symptoms of memory loss and problems with thinking and reasoning. This book is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements related to the causes, diagnosis and treatment of Alzheimer's disease. It aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects and recent researches on this disease. This book will serve as a valuable source of reference for students, researchers and medical practitioners.

Herbal medicine refers to the practice of using plants to treat diseases and improve overall health and wellness. These medicines are available in the form of powders, tablets, extracts, capsules, teas, and dried or fresh plants. It also uses bee and fungal products, as well as shells, minerals and animal parts. There are several herbs that are frequently utilized in herbal medicine such as garlic, Echinacea, ginseng, dong quai, ginger, Hypericum perforatum, etc. Herbal medicine is considered to have various medicinal herbs that have anti-aging properties. The extracts of the basil plant and Momordica charantia can slow down the ageing process, as well as treat age-related diseases. Furthermore, extracts of Salvia miltiorrhiza, Curcumin longa and naringin found in grapes and citrus fruits hold significant potential in initiating differentiation capability and cumulative proliferation of stem cells. This book explores all the important aspects of herbal medicine and aging in the modern day. It provides significant information to help develop a good understanding of the potential of natural treatment for age-related diseases. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Aging is the process of growing older. It is a risk factor for most prevalent neurodegenerative diseases, such as mild cognitive impairment, dementias involving Alzheimer's disease, cerebrovascular disease, Parkinson's disease, and Lou Gehrig's disease. The brain is a complicated organ that is made up of many different types of tissue and matter. The function of various tissues in brain may be more or less susceptible to age- induced changes. The structure of brain's network is formed through anatomical connection of the neurons. The aging of brain is a complex process that begins early in life and accelerates with age, affecting everything from the subcellular to the organ level. Brain volume loss, cortical thinning, white matter degradation, loss of gyrification, and ventricular enlargement are morphological symptoms of brain aging. Neuron cell shrinking, dendritic degeneration, demyelination, small vessel disease, metabolic slowing, microglial activation, and the formation of white matter lesions are pathophysiological symptoms of brain aging. This book explores all the important aspects of ageing in the present day scenario. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a type of virus that infects humans and over time causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which facilitates cancers and opportunistic infections to thrive due to the immune system failure. Acute infection, clinical latency and AIDS are the three stages of HIV infection. Unprotected sex, contaminated blood transfusions, hypodermic needles, and transmission from mother to child during pregnancy are the most common ways in which HIV is transmitted. It has been classified into two types and includes HIV-1 and HIV-2. Preventative measures of HIV infection include safe sex, needle exchange programs, and pre and post-exposure prophylaxis. Antiretroviral medications are typically used in the treatment of HIV in order to control the infection. This book explores all the important aspects of HIV infection in the present day scenario. It aims to serve as a resource guide for students and experts alike and contribute to the study of this medical condition. The book also aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of the treatment and prevention of HIV.

Ocular imaging is a technology that allows quantitative examination of the posterior segment of the eye. This is a diagnostic tool that helps detect changes in the optic nerve head (ONH), the nerve fiber layer (NFL), and the macula. Such changes may be associated with glaucoma. Ocular imaging devices play a pivotal role in clinical glaucoma assessment due to their ability to obtain micron scale measurements. There are three major devices for ocular diagnostic imaging, namely, scanning laser polarimetry (SLP), confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (CSLO), and optical coherence tomography (OCT). The real-time, non-invasive, and high-resolution images of the eye are provided by all three devices. The first technology, SLP, is used to determine the thickness of the nerve by assessing the birefringence of polarized light as it is reflected from the eye. The second technology, CSLO, is a confocal microscopy technique that has high transverse resolution. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of ocular imaging. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

Neuroimaging uses quantitative (computational) techniques to study the form and function of the central nervous system in a non-invasive manner. It is used extensively in studies concerning brain disorders and psychiatric diseases. Clinical neuroimaging is used for identifying tumors, strokes, brain injuries, and neurodegenerative diseases. Conventional neuroimaging techniques include computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). There are two major categories of neuroimaging, namely, structural imaging that focuses on quantifying brain structure and functional imaging, which is used to study the functions of CNS. Medical practitioners also make use of advanced neuroimaging techniques to obtain functional information with respect to the pathophysiology of different CNS disorders. Advanced neuroimaging techniques include diffuse optical imaging (DOT), event-related optical signal (EROS), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), magnetoencephalography (MEG), positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), etc. This book discusses the theoretical and clinical aspects of neuroimaging. It will also provide interesting topics for research in neuroimaging, which interested readers can take up. This book is a complete source of knowledge on the present status of this important field.