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Aristophanes has been admired since antiquity for his wit, fantasy, language, and satire. The protagonists of Birds create a utopian counter-Athens. In Lysistrata wives go on conjugal strike until their husbands end war. Women in Women at the Thesmophoria punish Euripides for portraying them as wicked.

Quintus Ennius (239-169), widely regarded as the father of Roman literature, was instrumental in creating a new Roman literary identity, domesticating the Greek forms of epic and drama, and pursuing a range of other literary and intellectual pursuits. He inspired major developments in Roman religion, social organization, and popular culture.

Tacitus (c. 55-c. 120 CE), renowned for concision and psychology, is paramount as a historian of the early Roman empire. What survives of Histories covers the dramatic years 69-70. What survives of Annals tells an often terrible tale of 14-28, 31-37, and, partially, 47-66.

Lucian (c. 120-190 CE), apprentice sculptor then travelling rhetorician, settled in Athens and developed an original brand of satire. Notable for the Attic purity and elegance of his Greek and for literary versatility, he is famous chiefly for the lively, cynical wit of the dialogues in which he satirizes human folly, superstition, and hypocrisy.

Of more than seventy works by Varro (116-27 BCE) we have only his treatise On Agriculture and part of his On the Latin Language, a work typical of its author's interest not only in antiquarian matters but also in the collection of scientific facts, and containing much of very great value to the study of the Latin language.

The great Athenian philosopher Plato was born in 427 BCE and lived to be eighty. Acknowledged masterpieces among his works are the Symposium, which explores love in its many aspects, from physical desire to pursuit of the beautiful and the good, and the Republic, which concerns righteousness and also treats education, gender, society, and slavery.

The poetry of Horace (born 65 BCE) is richly varied, its focus moving between public and private concerns, urban and rural settings, Stoic and Epicurean thought. His Odes cover a wide range of moods and topics. Love and political concerns are frequent themes of the Epodes.

Demosthenes (384-322 BCE), orator at Athens, was a pleader in law courts who also became a champion of Athenian greatness and Greek resistance to Philip of Macedon. His steadfastness, pungent argument, and control of language gained him early reputation as the best of Greek orators, and his works provide vivid pictures of contemporary life.

The main aim of Dionysius of Halicarnassus' Roman Antiquities, which began to appear in 7 BCE, was to reconcile Greeks to Roman rule. Of the twenty books (from the earliest times to 264 BCE) we have the first nine complete; most of 10 and 11; extracts; and an epitome of the whole.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

Cicero was a prodigious letter writer, and many of his letters have survived. Published in three volumes, "Letters to Friends" contains some 435 letters between Cicero and his friends and acquaintances.

The Greek poetry of the seventh to the fifth century BCE that we call elegy was composed primarily for banquets and convivial gatherings. Its subject matter consists of almost any topic, excluding only the scurrilous and obscene.

In his epigrams, Martial (c. 40-c. 103 CE) is a keen, sharp-tongued observer of Roman scenes and events, including the new Colosseum, country life, a debauchee's banquet, and the eruption of Vesuvius. His poems are sometimes obscene, in the tradition of the genre, sometimes affectionate or amusing, and always pointed.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384-322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture-materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; fragments.

The Metamorphoses (The Golden Ass) of Apuleius (born c. 125 CE) is a romance combining realism and magic. Lucius wants the sensations of a bird, but by pharmaceutical accident becomes an ass. The bulk of the novel recounts his adventures as an animal, but Lucius also recounts many stories he overhears, including that of Cupid and Psyche.

In letters to his dear friend Atticus, Cicero reveals himself as to no other, except perhaps his brother. These letters, in a four-volume series, provide a vivid picture of a momentous period in Roman history--years marked by the rise of Julius Caesar and the downfall of the Republic.

The Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer (eighth century BCE) are the two oldest European epic poems. The latter tells of Odysseus's journey home from the Trojan War and the temptations, delays, and dangers he faced at every turn.

Vol. 1 revised 1928; vol. 2 revised 1930; vol. 4 includes index.

Aristophanes (c. 450-c. 386 BCE) has been admired since antiquity for his wit, fantasy, language, and satire. Socrates's "Thinkery" is at the center of Clouds, which spoofs untraditional techniques for educating young men. Wasps satirizes Athenian enthusiasm for jury service. Peace is a rollicking attack on war-makers.

In Tetrabiblos, a core text in the history of astrology, the preeminent ancient astronomer Ptolemy (c. 100-178 CE) treats the practical use of astronomical knowledge: making predictions about individuals' lives and the outcome of human affairs.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384-322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture-materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; fragments.

Marcus Aurelius (121-180 CE), philosopher-emperor, wrote the Meditations (his title was The matters addressed to himself) in periods of solitude during military campaigns. His ethical, religious, and existential reflections have endured as an expression of Stoicism, a text for students of that philosophy, and a guide to the moral life.

Tacitus (c. 55-c. 120 CE), renowned for concision and psychology, is paramount as a historian of the early Roman empire. Agricola includes Agricola's career in Britain. Germania is a description of German tribes as known to the Romans. Dialogus concerns the decline of oratory and education.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE -12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books 1-10, 21-45 (except parts of 41 and 43-45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy's history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

In Heroides, Ovid (43 BCE-17CE) allows legendary women to narrate their memories and express their emotions in verse letters to absent husbands and lovers. Ovid's Amores are three books of elegies ostensibly about the poet's love affair with his mistress Corinna.

Sophocles (497/6-406 BCE), considered one of the world's greatest poets, forged tragedy from the heroic excess of myth and legend. Seven complete plays are extant, including Oedipus Tyrannus, Ajax, Antigone, and Philoctetes. Among many fragments that also survive is a substantial portion of the satyr drama The Searchers.

In his epic The Civil War, Lucan (39-65 CE) carries us from Caesar's fateful crossing of the Rubicon, through the Battle of Pharsalus, Pompey's death, and Cato's leadership in Africa, to Caesar victorious in Egypt. The poem is also called Pharsalia.

Virgil (70-19 BCE) was a poet of immense virtuosity and influence. His Eclogues deal with bucolic life and love, his Georgics with tillage, trees, cattle, and bees. His Aeneid is an epic on the theme of Rome's origins. Poems of the Appendix Vergiliana are traditionally, but in most cases probably wrongly, attributed to Virgil.

Index to this volume is in the second volume, Books IX-XV.

Catullus (84-54 BCE) couples consummate poetic artistry with intensity of feeling. Tibullus (c. 54-19 BCE) proclaims love for Delia and Nemesis in elegy. The beautiful verse of the Pervigilium Veneris (fourth century CE?) celebrates a spring festival in honour of the goddess of love.